english grammar

موضوع: english grammar 3/10/2007, 8:39 pm

Sentence Fragments (Incomplete Sentences)

1. A sentence must have a subject and a verb if it is to make sense.

Incorrect: John, being a friendly computer salesman and baseball fan.
(No verb)

Correct: John, being a friendly computer salesman and baseball fan, refused to argue.
(John--the subject--is doing something, namely, refusing.)

2. A subordinate clause (also sometimes called a dependent clause) is not a complete sentence if it does not have a main clause even though it may have a subject and verb.

Incorrect: Because we are baseball fans.

Correct: We watched the All-Star Game because we are baseball fans.

There is nothing wrong with beginning a sentence with the word because as long as the clause with because is followed by a main clause.

Correct: Because we are baseball fans, we watched the All-Star Game.

3. Sometimes in conversation only sentence fragments make sense.

OK, if you are recording a conversation, otherwise incorrect: She asked, "Why did you watch that baseball game?"

"Because we are baseball fans."

Using Negatives

There are a few rules to keep in mind when making a sentence say "No."

1. Double negatives are nonstandard. Avoid two negative words in the same clause.

Incorrect: I don't want no seconds.
(Both don't and no are negatives.)

Correct: I don't want any seconds.

Correct: I want no seconds.

This rule does not include negative interjections at the beginning of a sentence or clause, since those are grammatically separate.

Correct: No, I don't want any seconds.

2. Do not use but in a negative sense with another negative.

Incorrect: He didn't want but one good manuscript.

Correct: He wanted but one good manuscript.

Correct: He wanted only one good manuscript.

3. Words like barely, hardly, and scarcely have a negative sense and should not be used with another negative. In effect, this creates a double negative.

Incorrect: He couldn't hardly speak.

Correct: He could hardly speak.

Incorrect: We were not barely able to see the stage.

Correct: We were barely able to see the stage.

There are four groups of words w

Tricky Plurals

hich some speakers and writers have difficulty with. In each

case it has to do with the agreement of plurals or plural-looking words with the verbs or other words they go with.

Plural-looking Nouns

Some nouns that end in -s look like they are plural, but they really are singular. This is particularly true of branches of knowledge, certain foods or dishes, and certain diseases.

Branches of knowledge like mathematics, physics, ethics, politics, or social studies are singular.

Names of foods, while plural, are treated singularly when they are treated as a single dish.

Some diseases, while plural in origin, are treated singularly because just one disease is discussed: measles, mumps, rickets, or pox.

Examples: Politics is a rough life.

Baked beans is one of my favorite dishes.

Mumps has been nearly eradicated in the U.S.

A few words, though singular in nature, are made of paired items and generally treated as plural: scissors, pants, trousers, glasses, pliers, tongs, tweezers, and the like. Many are often used with the word pair as in pair of pants or pair of scissors.

Example: These scissors are too dull to cut with.

موضوع: رد: english grammar 3/10/2007, 8:41 pm

Nouns Expressing Measurement
A noun expressing an amount or measurement is normally singular.
If the unit of measurement refers to a number of individual items, then it treated as a plural.

Examples: Two spoons of sugar is too much for me.
(A single measurement)
Twelve dollars is less than what I want to sell it for.
(A single sum of money)
Four-fifths of the country is satisfied with its
health insurance.
(One part of a whole)
Four-fifths of the people are satisfied with their
health insurance.
(Four-fifths refers to many individuals.)
Titles
Titles of books and other works of art are always considered singular even if the title sounds plural.
The Alfred Hitchcock film The Birds was successfully advertised with a campaign that said, "The Birds is coming!" Unlike so many ads, that one was grammatically correct.
Plurals That Do Not End in -s
A number of plurals, mostly derived from Latin, do not end in -s. Nevertheless, they are plural and should be treated as such. Words such as criteria, phenomena, memoranda, and media are plural. Their singular forms are criterion, phenomenon, memorandum, and medium.
The word data is also technically plural, but the singular form, datum, is rare in English, so using data as singular is tolerated, but not precisely correct. Say "a piece of data" or "item of data" for the singular if datum sounds too affected.
See also "Alumni" and other listings in Spelling Slammer.

موضوع: رد: english grammar 3/10/2007, 8:42 pm

Subject Agreement with the Verb
It is usually pretty easy to match the verb with the subject in English. Only in the present tense does the verb have more than one form. And except for one verb, only the third person singular is different. Besides, the third person singular present tense always ends in an s. We understand this most of the time.
Verb: To speak

I, you, we, they speak
he, she, it speaks
Verb: To do

I, you, we, they do
he, she, it does
Verb: To be (the only exception)

I am
you, we, they are
he, she, it is
The verb to be is also the only verb with more than one form in the past tense. See also the subjunctive mood.
Verb: To be, past

I, he, she, it was
you, we, they were
Normally, none of this is a problem. However, there are a few cases that confuse writers and speakers.
Separated Subjects and Verbs
A phrase or clause often separates the subject and the verb. The verb must still agree with the subject.

Incorrect: The climate in both places are mild.
Correct: The climate in both places is mild.
(Climate is the subject, not places. It takes the verb is.)
Keep track of the subject, especially when there is a singular pronoun or collective noun for the subject and a plural element in the phrase that separates the subject and verb.
Collective noun: A group of senators was calling for an investigation.
Singular pronoun: One of the many galaxies was proven to be near a black hole.
Compound Subjects
Two or more singular subjects joined by or or nor take a singular verb.

Correct: Neither John nor Mary knows what happened.
Two or more plural subjects joined by any conjunction (including and, or, but, or nor) take a plural verb.

Correct: Both men and women are allowed to enter. If on

موضوع: رد: english grammar 3/10/2007, 8:44 pm

If one or more singular subject is joined to one or more plural subject by or or nor, the verb agrees with the subject closest to the verb.

Incorrect: Neither Mary nor her brothers knows what happened.
(Brothers is closer to the verb and is plural; the verb should agree with brothers).
Correct: Neither Mary nor her brothers know what happened.
Correct: Neither her brothers nor Mary knows what happened.
A compound subject whose parts are joined by and normally takes a plural verb.

Correct: Joe and his brother know what happened.
A compound subject whose parts are joined by and takes a singular verb in two special instances.
1. When the parts of the subject combine to form a single item.

Correct: One and one equals two.
Correct: Cookies and cream is my favorite flavor.
2. When the compound subject is modified by the words each or every.

Correct: Every boy and girl has to participate.
See also British vs. American Grammar, The Verb To Be, and Indefinite Pronouns.

Comparison Problems

There are five problems writers sometimes have with comparisons.

1. Make sure you are comparing similar items.

Incorrect: The tusk of a mastodon is bigger than an elephant.
(It sounds as if the writer is comparing the tusk with an elephant.)
Correct: The tusk of a mastodon is bigger than the tusk of an elephant.
2. Make sure your comparison is balanced. Use the same pattern on both sides of the comparison to make it readable and clear.

Unbalanced: The tusk of a mastodon is bigger than an elephant's.
Correct: The tusk of a mastodon is bigger than that of an elephant.
(Or "than the tusk of an elephant" ; either choice keeps the pattern of using the prepositional phrase.)
Correct: A mastodon's tusk is bigger than an elephant's.
(Or "than an elephant's tusk" ; either choice keeps the pattern of using the possessive noun.)
3. When comparing people or items that are grouped together, it may be necessary to use the word other or else to make the meaning clear.

Incorrect: The X-15 was faster than any airplane.
(The X-15 is an airplane. The sentence makes it sound as though it were some other kind of aircraft.)
Correct: The X-15 was faster than any other airplane.
Incorrect: Manute was taller than anyone on the team.
(This suggests that he either was not on the team or that he is being compared to himself.)
Correct: Manute was taller than anyone else on the team.
4. The words major and minor are comparative forms that have lost some of their original usage. However, it is nonstandard to add -ly to them just as it is to add -ly to any comparative adjective or adverb that ends in -er.

Incorrect: He was majorly disappointed.
Correct: He was greatly disappointed.
Correct: He was more greatly disappointed than we thought.
5. Avoid the double comparison. Words that end in -er or -est and certain irregular comparisons do not need to be modified with the words more, most, less, or least since they are already comparative or superlative.
Similarly, do not add an -er or -est to an irregular comparison for the same reason.

Incorrect: That film was more funnier than the one we saw last week.
Correct: That film was funnier than the one we saw last week.
Incorrect: She felt worser yesterday. (Worse is already comparative.)
Correct: She felt worse yesterday.
The word lesser is accepted by most authorities when used as an adjective meaning smaller or less significant.

Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause which says something different from what is meant because words are left out. The meaning of the sentence, therefore, is left "dangling."

Incorrect: While driving on Greenwood Avenue yesterday afternoon, a tree began to fall toward Wendy H's car.
(It sounds like the tree was driving! This actually appeared in a newspaper article. An alert reader wrote, "Is the Department of Motor Vehicles branching out and issuing licenses to hardwoods? Have they taken leaf of their senses?")

Adding a word or two makes the sentence clear.

Correct: While Wendy H was driving on Greenwood Avenue yesterday afternoon, a tree began to fall toward her car.

When a modifier "dangles" so that the sentence is meaningless (or means something other than your intent), restate it and add the words it needs in order to make sense.

Irregular Comparisons

A few of the comparatives and superlatives in English do not follow the usual pattern. Here is a list of common exceptions.

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

bad

worse

worst

badly

worse

worst

far(distance)

farther

farthest

far(extent)

further

furthest

good

better

best

ill

worse

worst

late

later

latest or last

less

lesser

least

little(amount)

less

least

many

more

most

much

more

most

well

better

best

The comparisons for well apply to both the adjective meaning "healthy" and the adverb meaning "in a good manner."

For more on how to use some of these see the Common Mistakes section on good/well and bad/badly. Also see Common Mistakes section for the difference between further and farther and between littlest and least.

موضوع: رد: english grammar 3/10/2007, 8:45 pm

Comparatives and Superlatives

Use words ending in -er or modified by the word more to compare two items. This is known as the comparative degree.

Use words ending in -est or modified by the word most to compare three or more items. This is known as the superlative degree.

Correct: K2 is taller than Annapurna.

Incorrect: Annapurna is the taller of the three peaks.
(Three or more requires superlative.)

Correct: Annapurna is the tallest of the three peaks.

Normally, -er and -est are added to one-syllable words.

-er and -est are added to two-syllable words unless the new word sounds awkward.

Correct: fairer prettier handsomest

Awkward: famousest readier

Correct: most famous more ready

Use the modifiers more or most with all root words longer than two syllables as well as with two syllable words that sound awkward. Always use more or most with adverbs that end in -ly.

Incorrect: beautifuller smoothliest

Correct: more beautiful most smoothly

Correct: friendliest beastliest (adjectives, not adverbs)

Less and least form comparisons of a lesser degree in a similar manner. Less is used when comparing two items, least with three or more.

See also Irregular Comparisons and Comparison Problems.

The Subjunctive Mood

A verb is in the subjunctive mood when it expresses a condition which is doubtful or not factual. It is most often found in a clause beginning with the word if. It is also found in clauses following a verb that expresses a doubt, a wish, regret, request, demand, or proposal.

These are verbs typically followed by clauses that take the subjunctive:

ask, demand, determine, insist, move, order, pray, prefer, recommend, regret, request, require, suggest, and wish.

In English there is no difference between the subjunctive and normal, or indicative, form of the verb except for the present tense third person singular and for the verb to be.

The subjunctive for the present tense third person singular drops the -s or -es so that it looks and sounds like the present tense for everything else.

The subjunctive mood of the verb to be is be in the present tense and were in the past tense, regardless of what the subject is.

Incorrect: If I was you, I would run.

Correct: If I were you, I would run.
(The verb follows if and expresses a non-factual condition.)

Incorrect: I wish he was able to type faster.

Correct: I wish he were able to type faster.
(The second verb is in a clause following a verb expressing a wish. It also suggests a non-factual or doubtful condition.)

Incorrect: His requirement is that everyone is computer literate.

Correct: His requirement is that everyone be computer literate.
(Subordinate clause follows main clause with a demand.)

Incorrect: He recommended that each driver reports his tips.

Correct: He recommended that each driver report his tips.

Sometimes we may use the conditional auxiliary verbs of could, should, or would to express the same sense.

Subjunctive:I wish he were kinder to me.

Conditional: I wish he would be kinder to me.

Note: In modern English, the subjunctive is only found in subordinate clauses.

General Antecedent Agreement

The antecedent of a pronoun is the word the pronoun refers to. There are several style problems which writers and speakers sometimes have when they do not match the pronoun and the noun it replaces correctly.

Missing or Mismatched Antecedent

A pronoun, unless it is an indefinite pronoun, must have an antecedent, a word it refers to. The pronoun must match the word it replaces--singular or plural, and, sometimes, masculine or feminine.

Incorrect: Every student must have their pencils.
(Both every and student are singular; therefore, his, her, or his or her must be used. Their is plural and cannot refer to a singular noun.)

موضوع: رد: english grammar 3/10/2007, 8:46 pm

Unclear Antecedent

A pronoun's antecedent must be clear.

Incorrect: I never go to that place because they have stale bread.
(What does they refer to? Both I and place are singular.)

Correct: I never go to that place because it has stale bread.

When the antecedent is a different gender, person, or number than the pronoun it is supposed to replace; this is sometimes called a "faulty co-reference."

Incorrect: Politics is my favorite subject. They are such fascinating people.

Correct: Politics is my favorite subject. Politicians are such fascinating people.

Faulty co-reference may also occur with adverbs that do not replace an adverbial expression or pronouns that do not replace nouns.

Incorrect: He ought to speak French well. He lived there for twenty years.

Correct: He ought to speak French well. He lived in France for twenty years.

Ambiguous Antecedent

A pronoun's antecedent must be unambiguous. Sometimes there may be more than one word the pronoun could refer to. In a case like that, it may be better not to use the pronoun.

Incorrect: The suitcase was on the plane, but now it's gone.
(What is gone? The suitcase or the plane?)

Correct: The suitcase was on the plane, but now the suitcase is gone.

OR

The suitcase was on the plane, but now the plane is gone.
(Depends on which you mean...)

Faraway Antecedent

The pronoun must be close enough to the word it is replacing so that your reader knows whom or what you are talking about.

Unclear: Buford saw Longstreet's division coming toward his men. Reynolds' troops responded quickly to the calls for assistance, and soon he found himself in the midst of a deadly battle.
(Who is he? Buford, Reynolds, or Longstreet?)

Clear: Buford saw Longstreet's division coming toward his men. Reynolds' troops responded quickly to the calls for assistance, and soon Buford found himself in the midst of a deadly battle.

Using Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns are words which replace nouns without specifying which noun they replace.

Singular: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something

Plural: both, few, many, others, several

Singular or Plural: all, any, more, most, none, some

Singular indefinite pronouns take singular verbs or singular personal pronouns.

Correct: Each of the members has one vote.
(The subject, each, is singular. Use has.)

Incorrect: One of the girls gave up their seat.

Correct: One of the girls gave up her seat.
(Her refers to one, which is singular.)

Plural indefinite pronouns take plural verbs or plural personal pronouns.

Correct: A few of the justices were voicing their opposition.
(Few is plural, so are were and their.)

For indefinite pronouns that can be singular or plural, it depends on what the indefinite pronoun refers to.

Correct: All of the people clapped their hands.
(All refers to people, which is plural.)

Correct: All of the newspaper was soaked.
(Here all refers to newspaper, which is singular.)

A Gender-Sensitive Case

The pronouns ending with -body or -one such as anybody, somebody, no one, or anyone are singular. So are pronouns like each and every. Words like all or some may be singular. That means that a possessive pronoun referring to these singular words must also be singular. In standard written English the possessive pronoun his is used to refer to a singular indefinite pronoun unless the group referred to is known to be all female.

Incorrect: Is everyone happy with their gift?

Correct: Is everyone happy with his gift?
(Everyone and is are singular. The possessive pronoun must be singular, too)

Most languages, including English, observe the standard of using the masculine pronoun in situations like this. However, in some circles today the idea of choosing the masculine pronoun sounds discriminatory against women. If this usage bothers you, or if you think it may bother your audience, there are two possible ways to work around this and still use standard English.

موضوع: رد: english grammar 3/10/2007, 8:47 pm

1. Use the phrase his or her. It is a little awkward, but OK.

Correct: Is everyone happy with his or her gift?

2. Rewrite the sentence using a plural pronoun or antecedent. Plural personal pronouns in English no longer distinguish between masculine and feminine.

Correct: Are all the people happy with their gifts?

Pronouns with Than or As

When you use a pronoun in a comparison using the words than or as, use the proper pronouns as if all the words were being said.

Most of the time when we use a comparison using than or as, we leave words out. This is technically called an elliptical clause--a clause with an ellipsis. An ellipsis is words left out.

Look at it this way. There is a difference between the two following sentences. Both are grammatically correct; they just mean two different things.

He likes you more than me.

He likes you more than I.

Think of what words are left out:

He likes you more than I do.
(I is the subject)

He likes you more than he likes me.
(Me is the direct object)

When a pronoun follows than or as in a comparison, make sure you understand what words are missing and then use the correct pronoun.

Incorrect: He is taller than her.
(i.e., than her is?)

Correct: He is taller than she.
(i.e., than she is. Much better!)

Incorrect: He is as happy as them.
(i.e., as happy as them are?)

Correct: He is as happy as they.
(i.e., as happy as they are.)

Correct with one meaning:

He sees you more often than I. (i.e., than I see you.)

Correct with another meaning:

He sees you more often than me. (i.e., than he sees me.)

The case of the pronoun makes the difference!
For more, see Pronoun Case. Misplaced Modifiers

This is a common problem in American speech. Writing has to be more precise than speaking, or it will be misunderstood.

A misplaced modifier is simply a word or phrase describing something but not placed near enough the word it is supposed to modify. The modifying word or phrase is not dangling; no extra words are needed; the modifier is just in the wrong place.

Incorrect: I had to take down the shutters painting the house yesterday.

It sounds like the shutters painted the house! Place the modifying phrase painting the house near or next to the word it is meant to modify.

Correct: Painting the house yesterday, I had to take down the shutters.

Possessive Pronouns

Certain pronouns called possessive pronouns show ownership. Some are used alone; some describe a noun.

Used alone: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, whose

Correct: That computer is hers.

Modify noun: my, your, his, her, its, our, their, whose

Correct: That is her computer.

Please note that none of the possessive pronouns are spelled with an apostrophe. See Apostrophes with Pronouns for more on this.

Possessive Pronouns with Gerunds

Possessive pronouns are used to describe gerunds. Using the objective case confuses the reader.

Incorrect: You winning in spite of the odds inspired us all.
(Ambiguous and awkward. Do you inspire or does the winning inspire?)

Correct: Your winning in spite of the odds inspired us all.

Incorrect: We could not stand him whining about everything.
(Which could you not stand? Him? or His whining?)

Because of the possible confusion, use possessive pronouns with gerunds.

Correct: We could not stand his whining about everything.

Pronoun Case

Pronouns are words that Americans often carelessly use in their speech. The problem is that the use of pronouns must be very clear when we write. Many times the writing will be misunderstood; at best, the writer will appear uneducated.

A major problem with pronouns is the use of the wrong case. In English certain pronouns are meant to be the subject or predicate nominative of a sentence. Other words are meant to be the objects--whether direct, indirect, objects of prepositions, or object complements.

Pronouns used as subjects or predicate nominatives (nominative case):

I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who

Pronouns used as objects (objective case):

me, you, him, her, it, us, them, whom

Some things are really obvious. All English speakers know we say "I like him," not "Me like he." But there are four common problem areas with pronoun case: compounds, appositives, predicate nominatives, and who/whom.

Compound Subjects and Objects with Pronouns

If we know that "Me like him" is incorrect, then that also means that "Katy and me like him" is incorrect. The word I belongs in the subject. The sentence should read "Katy and I like him." Similarly, the subject in "Katy and we like him" is correct.

Politeness says that the I, we, me or us comes last.

If the sentence had some kind of compound object the sentence would read: "Katy likes Joe and me," not "Katy likes Joe and I."

After all, we would say "Katy likes me," not "Katy likes I." Similarly the object in "Katy likes the Johnsons and us" is correct.

Pronouns with Appositives

Sometimes a descriptive noun phrase called an appositive will follow a personal pronoun. Keep the proper case of the pronoun.

We do not say: "Us want ease of use."

We say: "We want ease of use."

Therefore we do not say: "Us computer users want ease of use."

Instead, we should say: "We computer users want ease of use."

The Chronicles of Narnia says: "Come in front with us lions." That is correct. We say "with us," not "with we," so we should say "with us lions."

Pronouns in the Predicate Nominative

In standard written English, the personal pronouns in the predicate nominative are the same as they would be in the subject. Most Americans do not speak this way, but it is grammatically correct.

The nominative case follows a linking verb to rename the subject.

Incorrect: The winner was her. (Objective case)

Correct: The winner was she. (Nominative case)

She is a predicate nominative. It uses the same case as the subject since it simply renames the subject.

Even though we may often say, "It's me" the grammatically correct way is "It's I."

Who and Whom

Who and whom correspond to he and him. Who is the subject or predicate nominative. Whom is the object.

Correct: Who are you? (Subject)

Correct: Whom do you see? (Direct object)

Correct: Whom did you give it to?
(Object of preposition to)

Correct: Who did that? (Subject)

It may help you to recall that who follows the same

pattern as he and they. When all three are in the objective case, they end with m: whom, him,

them.

This same pattern applies when you add the suffix -ever or -soever:

Correct: Whoever dies with the most toys wins.
(Subject)

Correct: He gave that ticket to whoever asked for one.
(Subject of asked) Correct: Pick whomever I tell you to. (Direct object

موضوع: رد: english grammar 21/5/2008, 2:29 am

thank you for the impresive information and good luck in life
take care dear friend

موضوع: رد: english grammar 3/6/2008, 10:19 am

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